[41][45], In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative Nalam Killi on the Chola throne. [82] Kanchi functioned as the second major city in the kingdom. It seems that Maravarman Kulasekhara wanted Vira Pandya to succeed him (who inturn was defeated by Sundara Pandya after a short period of time). [25], Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. [107] Though the vast majority of the population followed native Dravidian practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism. The Pandya dynasty, also known as the Pandyas of Madurai, was a dynasty of south India, one of the three famous Tamil lineages, the other two being the Chola and the Chera. Written records from Graeco-Roman and Egyptian voyagers give details about the pearl fisheries off the Gulf of Mannar. Muziris was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the Periplus, "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". [35] Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts. [7][70] In the Velvikudi inscription, a later copper-plate, Kadungon appears as the "destroyer" of the "anti-Brahmanical" Kalabhra kings. Some of the coins bore a boar with the legend of 'Vira-Pandya. That is why they portray them as I have described. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe. [5] The dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas' (13th to 14th centuries CE). There are even references to a Pandya queen from 3rd century BCE representing a confederacy of the Tamil countries. He also invaded Sri Lanka, ruled by Bhuvanaikabahu I, "carried away to the Pandya country the venerable Tooth Relic", and the wealth of the island. [4] A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE[1]) is the high status accorded to women. Rachel LevineRachel L. Levine is an American pediatrician who has served as the Pennsylvania Secretary of Health since 2017. [108][109], Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word kudi ("group") to denote "caste". An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the Palghat Gap to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence. [12] Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera kingdom around 8th-9th century AD to form the Chera Perumal kingdom (c. 9th- 12th century AD). [119] The bhakti movement emphasized the mutual intense emotional attachment between the god and the devotee. [112] Coins of Pandyas bear the legend of different Pandya ruler in different times. [46], Greek and Latin sources (early centuries CE) refer to the ancient Tamil country, same as the Tamilakam, as "Lymyrike" or "Damirice" (or Dymirice/Dimirixe or Damirice) and its ruling families. [94] The Pandya brothers fled their headquarters, and the Khaljis pursued them unsuccessfully. [7] The Pandyas of Ucchangi (9th–13th century), in the Tungabhadra Valley were related to the Pandyas of Madurai. 'Early Tamil Polity', in, Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. Died at Chikkar Palli. Guided by sound economic principles, we are united in the following policy recommendations. [14], While the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas were busy engaging the Pallavas, with the Gangas and the Simhalas (Sri Lanka) also in the mix, the Cholas emerged from the Kaveri delta and took on the chieftains of Thanjavur[74] (the Mutharaiyar chieftain had transferred their loyalty from the Pallava to the Pandya[75]). [11][14] In the modern period the rulers of Cochin and Travancore (in Kerala) also claimed the title "Chera". [75], By c. 897 CE, Chola king Aditya I was the master of the old Pallava, Ganga and Kongu countries. A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period. [32] Pururavas is listed as one of the ancestors in the Velvikudi Inscription of Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna-varman I (Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan). [43] The Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) by Nakkirar contains a description of king Nedunjeliyan's palace. The coins of Pandyas were basically square. [26] Historians are yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Carswell, John. [43], After the end of the early historical period in south India, c. 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. [99] In 1323, the Jaffna kingdom declared its independence from the crumbling Pandya influence. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. [18][19], While the previous sultanate raids were content with plunder, the Tughluqs under Ulugh Khan (later Muhammad bin Tughluq[1]) annexed the former Pandya dominions to the sultanate as the province of Ma'bar. His successor Ko Chadayan … [106] Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god Murugan. Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/. [22] The theory suggests that in early historic Tamil lexicon the word pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country, Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)[46], Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar. [10] The gradual shift from chiefdoms to kingdoms seems to have occurred in the following period. [21], He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. The location was economically and geopolitically significant as a key point connecting the shipping between Southeast Asia and the Middle East. [87][88] It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period. [80] Sri Lanka was invaded by Jatavarman Sundara I in 1258[88] and on his behalf by his younger brother Jatavarman Vira II between 1262 and 1264 CE. [77], The second half of the 12th century witnessed a major internal crisis in the Pandya country (between princes Parakrama Pandya and Kulasekhara Pandya). He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (virakkallu) for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi. [44] Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean. Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century AD) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom. [9][30] Bronze dies for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur. [16] Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies. The Pandyas at one time or another ruled or invaded the fertile estuary of Kaveri (the Chola country), the ancient Chera country (Kongu and central Kerala) and Venadu (south Kerala), the Pallava country and Sri Lanka. [80] Around 1279 the combined force of Hoysala king Ramanatha and Rajendra III was defeated by Maravarman Kulasekara I. [4] The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. [17] Maravarman Kulasekhara I (c. 1268) defeated an alliance of the Hoysalas and the Cholas (1279) and invaded Sri Lanka. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan. Sena II, the king of Sri Lanka, invaded the Pandya country, sacked Madurai and chose Varagunavarman II (r. c. 862–880 CE[72]) as the new king soon after. [75][76], The Cholas were defeated by a Rashtrakuta-lead confederacy in the battle of Takkolam in 949 CE. Maintaining this notion, fate outdid the Proteas and clinched a cakewalking victory for India! [68] In the middle of the 9th century, the Pandyas had managed to advance as far as Kumbakonam (north-east of Tanjore on the Kollidam river). Most of south India came under the sultanate rule and was divided into five provinces – Devagiri, Tiling, Kampili, Dorasamudra and Ma'bar. [9] The western sailors also established a number of trading settlements on the harbours of the ancient Tamil region.[9]. [citation needed]. Team India gifts Nathan Lyon a jersey signed by the Indian players on the occasion of his 100th Test appearance in this match. Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 AD), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions. The 10,000 NJ Teachers Who Make $99K Or More In 2019 - Point Pleasant, NJ - Here are the 10,000-plus top-paid NJ public school teachers, a growing club earning $100K-plus a year. [27], Folklores attributes Alli Rani (meaning "the queen Alli") as one of the early historic rulers of the Pandyas. Tamil News - Maalaimalar is the leading Tamil News Website that delivers Latest Tamil News, Tamil Newspaper updates, Today News in Tamil and much more. [81], The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. [82] Sometime later Chola prince Rajendra III attacked the Pandyas and defeated two Pandya royals including Maravarman Sundara II. or enter address manually. [41], Pandya rulers – such as Nedunjeliyan, the Victor of Talaiyalanganam, and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi, the Patron of Several Sacrificial Halls ("the Palyaga-salai") – find mention in a number of poems (such as Mathuraikkanci). [25] Epic poem Silappatikaram mentions that the emblem of the Pandyas was that of a fish. Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu". [97][98] By 1312 the Pandya control over south Kerala was also lost. It is a 2-hydroxy monocarboxylic acid and a primary alcohol. [43] It contains a full-length description of Madurai and the Pandya country under the rule of Nedunjeliyan. [75] Parantaka I, successor to Aditya, invaded the Pandya territories in 910 CE and captured Madurai from king Maravarman Rajasimha II (hence the title "Madurai Konda"). [81] Nambudiri-Brahmin settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom. [98] Subsequently, there were two more expeditions from the sultanate in 1314 led by Khusro Khan and in 1323 by Ulugh Khan (Muhammad bin Tughluq) under sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq. ...the kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang. [11] Little is known for certain about the Cheras during this period. [11], ...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another kingdom, the Pandian. [14] With the decline of the Kalabhra dynasty, the Pandyas grew steadily in power and territory. [15], The term Chera - and its variant form "Keralaputas" - stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them. Agastya appears prominently in medieval Tamil literature also. [10] Korkai and Alagankulam are believed to have been the exchange centres of the Pandyas. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). 2014. [98] Wootz steel in India had high amount of carbon in it. In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies. [9], The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. [75] Rajasimha II received help from the Sri Lankan king Kassapa V, still got defeated by Parantaka I in the battle of Vellur, and fled to Sri Lanka. [24][7] Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near Karur) dated to c. 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. In his inscriptions (2nd and 13th Major Rock Edict[34]) Asoka refers to the peoples of south India – the Chodas, Keralaputras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras. [15], The Pandyas entered their "golden age" under Maravarman I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I (13th century). However, Ballala had to retreat to his capital, when Khalji general Malik Kafur invaded his kingdom at the same time. [87][82] It seems that Bana (Magadai) and Kongu countries came under the Pandya rule during the wars against the Hoysalas and the Kadavas. Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal). [108] The Periplus even mentions that "pearls inferior to the Indian sort are exported in great quantity from the marts of Apologas and Omana". Sundara Pandya was defeated, and sought help from the Khaljis. Please enter a valid telephone number; Telephone type. Dr. Harkins has participated in a number of Academic Research Studies. [2][3], The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. [31] The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai",[9] "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai"[9] were also discovered from Karur. [9] All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. [113] A few gold coins were attributed to the Pandya rulers of this period. [83][84] When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. With the Cholas in obscurity in Uraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai. [18][19] In the mid-16th century, the Vijayanagara governors of Madurai declared independence and established the Madurai Nayak dynasty. [63] The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. [117] Apart from these, 'Ellamthalaiyanam' was seen on coins which had the standing king on one side and the fish on the other. [36][37][38] Ilango Adigal author of the legendary Tamil epic poem Chilapathikaram describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. [7] Graeco-Roman accounts (as early as 4th century BCE[7]), the edicts of Maurya emperor Asoka, coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to the early centuries CE. [99] Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan was appointed governor of the newly created southernmost Ma'bar province. [83] The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in early 11th century AD (in order to break the monpoly of trade with the Middle East). The early historic Pandya country was famous for its supply of pearls. [65], While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in Tamil Nadu emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in Kerala took place not before c. 9th century CE. [35], A method known as Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism, is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c. 1st - 2nd century CE. [82] Jatavarman Sundara I also fought the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati (1199-1262[6]). [3] Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet. For other uses, see, Chera country in early historic south India, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMenon2007a (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMenon2007b (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFCaldwell1998 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFZvelebil1937 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFThapar2002 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlapak2003 (, 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, "Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India", "Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal", "An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil", "Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population", "India (History) - Southern Indian Kingdoms", "Classical Indo-Roman Trade: A Misnomer in Political Economy", "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala", "Did State Exist in the Pre-Pallavan Tamil Region? [106] It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. [7][8] Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names. [4], Uthiyan Cheral Athan is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Tamil texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decad of Pathitrupattu). [79] The port of Kollam, in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. [64], The famous inscription of king Kharavela at Hathigumpha (mid-first century BCE[10]) mentions the defeat of a confederacy of the "Tramira" countries which had been a threat to Kalinga. [69] The so-called "velir" hill chieftains are assumed to be associated with these megalithic burials. Bukka Raya I appointed his son Veera Kumara Kampana as the viceroy of the Tamil region. [24], According to the ancient Tamil legends, the three brothers Cheran, Cholan and Pandyan ruled in common at the southern city of Korkai. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler Karikala. [50][4], According to Chilapathikaram, Chenguttuvan lead his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of godess Pattini. [110] Literary references of the pearl fishing mention how the fishermen, who dive into the sea, avoid attacks from sharks, bring up the right-whorled chank and blow on the sounding shell. Keeping in touch. The Pandya country was home to a number of renowned temples including Meenakshi Temple in Madurai. [6] He was also successful in confining the Hoysala control to the Mysore Plateau (the ancient Chola country was now overrun by the Pandyas[6]). For the related surname, see, Pandya rulers from early historic south India. The distinctions between the three were not clearly differentiated. [7] The poems refers to about twelve Pandya rulers. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief). Arikesari Maravarman (r. 670–700 CE), the fourth Pandya ruler, is known for his battles against the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. [68] He fought against an alliance of the Pandya, Chera and Sri Lankan kings, and defeated the Cheras and "deprived" the Pandyas of their ancient capital Madurai. Pliny the Elder, in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. [15], Chola emperor Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE) is known to have attacked the Pandyas. [78][77], The Pandya empire included extensive territories, at times including large portions of south India and Sri Lanka.
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